The Random Access Memory Computer Science Essay

The Random Access Memory Computer Science Essay Computer data storage provides one of the core functions of the modern computer, that of information retention. It is one of the fundamental components of all modern computers, and coupled with a central processing unit (CPU, a processor), implements the basic computer model used since the 1940s[2].Physical memory is a general term that refers to the media data cache on your computer. Being processed for each program and data by the processor will be stored in physical memory. Data is stored in physical memory is temporary, because it will store the data stored in it on a computer that does not continue to flow through the power in other words, the computer is still alive. When you are re-set the computer on or off, will be the loss of data stored in physical memory. So, before you shut down your computer, do not store all data in the mass permanent storage usually tend to be permanent and the media-based disk storage, such as hard disk or floppy disk. There are some types of compute r memory which is Random Access Memory (RAM), Read Only Memory (ROM), Virtual memory, Cache Memory and Flash Memory MAIN BODY Random Access Memory (RAM) consists of a set of chips. Chip-chip is able to accommodate the data to be processed, or program instructions, to process data which has been processed and waiting to be sent to output devices, secondary storage or communication also device. Operating system that controls the basic functions of the system data and instructions had accommodated in RAM is temporary. The contents of RAM can vary according to the processed data in it, or even use the program. RAM is the computer resources of its reusable or can be used of RAM referred to as the volatile products. This means that if the power is disconnected from the computer and the computer dead, then all content that is in RAM will be lost permanently. Because RAM is temporary and volatile, then the other storage media to create a permanent nature. This is commonly referred to as secondary storage. Secondary storage is durable and not too volatile, this means all data or programs stored in it can still exist even if the power or the power is turned off. Some examples of this such as secondary storage are magnetic tape, hard drives, magnetic disks and optical storage disk.Capacity of RAM is very diverse in different computers. Capacity is an important factor, because it determines how much data can be processed in the same time and how large and complex programs that can store. Computer operating system in charge of regulating the use of RAM so that programs can work well. To understand the capacity of the RAM, then some of the following terminology is often. Bit, which is a binary numbering system that represents the smallest unit of data in a computer system? A bit consists of only two digits are 1 and 0. In the computer, 0 means electronic or magnetic signals are absent or absent, while 1 means. Byte, which is a group of eight bits. A byte represents one character, a digit or a value. The capacity of computer memory, or RAM, specified in bytes or groups of bytes. Data, and program instructions stored in the RAM is actually stored in the bits that represent data, instruction and program earlier. Bits are stored in an electronic part called the microscopic capacitor. Read Only Memory (ROM) is a set of chips that contain part of the operating system which is needed when the computer starts up. ROM is also known as a firmware. ROM is not writable or changed its contents by the user. ROM classified in the media that are non-volatile storage. ROM chips come from the factory with programs or instructions that have been stored in it. The only way to replace its contents is removed from the computer and replace it with another ROM. ROM chip can contain frequently used programs, such as computational routines to calculate the root of a number of ROM and others. This example is for the storage of the BIOS (Basic Input-Output System) which by the manufacturer. BIOS are a very critical part of an operating system, which functions to tell the computer how I access the disk drives. When the computer is turned on, RAM is still empty and there are instructions in the ROM BIOS is used by the CPU to find the disk drive that contains the main files in the operatin g system. Computer and then transfer those files into RAM and then there are three variations of the ROM, i.e. PROM, or programmable read only memory. PROM chip is a chip that is empty in which the program can be written into it by using special equipment. PROM chips can be programmed once and usually used by the plant as a control device in the product. PROM or erasable programmable read only memory. EPROM similar to PROM, but the program can be removed and the new program could be written into it by using special equipment that uses ultraviolet light. EPROM is used for controlling devices, such as robots .EEPROM, or electronic erasable programmable read only memory. EEPROM chip can be reprogrammed using special electric impulses. Virtual memory is a data storage method in which part of the program or data stored in the magnetic disk and not in RAM, until such time as necessary. This will provide a kind of illusion that the RAM is its unlimited. Upshot simulates virtual memory itself as a RAM. He allows a computer to run more programs than ever before manipulate larger data and also runs a large program without fear of shortage of RAM. Virtual storage is slower than RAM and non-volatile nature. Cache memory is the storage of data or information, while the most frequently used or accessed by a computer. Cache memory located on the CPU or on a separate chip. CPU cache memory used to store instructions that are frequently used to run a program. Indirectly, this will improve overall system speed. There are two parts of the cache memory on a computer that is level 1 and level 2 caches is often with L1 and L2. L1 cache is on a built-in CPU and the L2 cache is located in a separate chip, and is located near the CPU. Some CPUs have a built-L1 and L2 and L3 are located on the outside. CPU which has a built-in cache memory much faster than the outside because it operates in tandem with microprosessor speed. Flash memory is non-volatile memory whose contents are maintained after power off. Flash memory can be read from and written to multiple times and more durable than floppy disks or compact disc. Flash memory devices used in various contributions to the stability, fast access, durability and clean energy power consumption. In addition to use as memory cards and thumb drives, flash memory is also used as a substitute for the hard-drive in the form of solid-state drive and hybrid. Flash memory to store and transfer files between computers and digital appliances. This is a form of EPROM electrically programmable read-can delete the memory-only. The types of flash memory are a compact flash (CF), Secure Digital (SD) media, memory sticks, multimedia cards, and xD-Picture cards. CONCLUSION The computers memory, often called memory only refers to any computer components, devices and recording media that retain digital data for a certain period of time. Computer data storage provides one of the main tasks of the modern computer, to store information. Memory is one of most important components in any computer system. Without Computer Memory, your computer system is useless and will only take up space in your desk. Computer Memory is a bridge between your permanent storage system disks, CDs, and the Processor. Hard drives are very slow when compared with a CPU processing time so Computer Memory is used to buffer data during time it is processed so bottlenecks are reduced.

The effect of location decision on a business success

The effect of location decision on a business success 2.1 Introduction Todays competitive market demands companies to deliver their products and services as effectively and efficiently as possible. The distribution strategy is the key to the success. One of the key components of a distribution network is warehouse location. Location decision is considered as a long-term business strategic decision. The correct location decision can resulted in significant improvement in business processes and performance, and bring competitive advantages (i.e. cost saving, service quality, etc.) over its competitors. On the other hand, if a poor location decision was made, it could equally cost the company time, money and opportunity. The location decisions environment is dynamic and normally described as a multi-criteria decision. Furthermore, the globalisation and the rapid evolution of information technology have changed the characteristics of location problems. There are two major trends in facility location selection accordingly to Yang and Lee (1997). First, there has been an increased interest to gain potential competitive edge in the global marketplace. Second, small to medium-sizes communities has become more attractive to many businesses as new facility location. These two trends are influenced by the more advanced communication technology, better transportation infrastructure system, liberalised trade between countries, and so on. This allows company to select their facilities where they think has the most advantages (i.e. in land cost, labour cost, skilled labour availability, etc.). This chapter will start by identifying why a company needs to improve its logistics system, then defining the linkage between the organisations strategy and the logistics strategy, followed by the general roles of warehouse in distribution strategy. Then it will present the influencing location factors companies normally consider when they make location decisions. And finally in the latter section of this chapter, it will present literature reviews of decision aid techniques and model used in location decisions. 2.2 Logistics system and the changing business environment Why do we need to change our logistics operations and strategy? The main reason why we need to change is because the environment we live in is constantly and rapidly changing. In order to survive in this unforgiving environment businesses are forced need to change. There are many factors given by Rushton, et al. (2006) including increasing customer demand, reducing product life cycle, changing technologies, increasing pressures from competitors, and so on. The pressures for change given by Rushton, et al. (2006) are illustrated by the figure 1. Figure 1 Pressure influencing logistics systems 2.3 Logistics strategy Logistics strategy should aim to establish the most appropriate blend of storage and transport at a given customer service level. Efficient logistics and distribution strategies should reduce the total logistics costs and must take into account the interactions of various the various replenishment activities in the distribution chain (Rushton, et al., 2006; Teo Shu, 2004). Chopra and Meindl (2004) suggest there are four drivers to a successful distribution system: (1) Facilities location, capacity, operations methodology, and warehousing methodology; (2) Inventory cycle inventory, safety inventory, seasonal inventory, and sourcing; (3) Transportation mode of transportation, route and network design, and in-house or outsource decision; and (4) Information push or pull, coordination and information sharing, forecasting and aggregate planning, and enabling technologies. Bowersox and Closs (1996) suggest similar points but they also add another driver which is network design. They also claim that classical economics often neglected the importance of facility location and overall network design. Similarly but in more details, Alling and Tyndall (1994) identify ten principles that make logistics operations successful. They are: (1) to link logistics to corporate strategy; (2) to organise logistics comprehensively; (3) to use the power of information tech nology; (4) to emphasize human resources recognising the importance of quality human resources; (5) to form strategic alliances; (6) to focus on financial performance; (7) to target optimum service levels; (8) to manage the details pay attention to details as it can be significant savings; (9) to leveraging logistics volume through consolidating shipment volumes, inventories and the like; and (10) to measure and react to performance. Furthermore, when considering a distribution strategy, warehousing strategy is an important part and typically the decision makers or logistics planners has to answer these questions (1) should warehousing facilities be owned, leased or rented, (2) what is the optimal size and number of warehouses, (3) what are the optimal locations for warehouses, (4) what product line should be stocked at each warehouse location, and what market areas should be serviced from each warehouse location. (Stock Lambert, 2001; Bowersox Closs, 1996; Simchi-Levi, et al., 2003; Bowersox Closs, 1996; Geoffrion Powers, 1995; Bender, 1994; Stock Lambert, 2001; Greasley, 2009) Matching logistics strategy to business strategy The important key to achieving the strategic fit is the ability of the company to find a balance between responsiveness and efficiency that best matches the business strategy. Whatever strategies chose to implement by the company, there will be impacts. And the impact of the selected logistics and distribution strategy has to be assessed against the business strategy. Often these may involve undertaking some qualitative analysis where it is impossible to derive good quantitative measures. The main areas of where this will impact, they are (Rushton, et al., 2006): a) Capital costs this is the costs of new facilities, new equipments, and so on. In certain situations capital constraints can exclude otherwise attractive options; b) Operating costs the minimum operating cost is often the main criterion for selection between options. In some cases increased operating costs can be accepted in the light of future flexibility; c) Customer service Although options should have been developed against customer service targets, the selected short list must be examined for the customer service level achieved. The balance of the mix might have changed in an effort to reduce costs. Stock held close to the customer might need to be increased to improve service reliability. 2.5 Obstacles to achieving strategic Fit As many as there are many factors and influences to achieving the strategic fit in the supply chain, there are also many obstacles to achieving the same goal as Chopra and Meindl (2004) and few other writers mention. Few examples of the obstacles to strategic fit are: a) the variety of products the increasing variety of products tends to raise uncertainty and uncertainty tends to raise costs and reduce responsiveness within the system; b) the product lifecycles the decreasing product lifecycles also tends to raise uncertainty and reduce the window of opportunity to achieving strategic fit; c) the increasingly demanding customer customers demand for faster fulfilment, better quality, and better value for money for the product they buy, companies must be able to provide these just to maintain their businesses; d) the fragmentation of supply chain ownership less vertically integrated structure can result in difficult coordination to achieving strategic fit; e) the effect of globaliz ation difficulties raised by the invasion of foreign players. It is noticed that these factors are the same factors which drives the need to improve logistics system as determined in section 2.2. 2.6 The logistics and distribution planning framework Many authors agree on the first and the most important step, when planning the logistics and distribution, which is to identify the objective and strategies of the organization. Then it follows by the second step which is to gain a detailed understanding of the present position of the system. The rests of the procedures are identifying the options, analysing the options, comparing and evaluating the results, and developing a planning and implementation. A diagram illustrating the approach to distribution planning by Rushton, et al. (2006) is shown in the figure 3 below. Figure 2: An approach to logistics and distribution planning (Rushton, et al., 2006) 2.7 Optimal number of warehouses The optimal number of warehouses can be found by using a costing model, a model which takes into account of variable costs, particularly the transport and operating costs. Few facilities give low cost for inward transport, but high cost for outward transport, as they are, on average, further away from customers. On the other hand, more number of facilities can give higher cost for inward transport, but the cost for outward transport is lower, as they are, on average, closer to customers. Another cost that varies with the number of facility is the operating costs. Higher number of facilities means the company has to bear more expensive cost to operating these facilities. Operating costs also vary with facility size. Generally, larger facilities give the economies of scale; however, this is not always the case. Higher cost from operating larger facilities may come from the cost of supervision, communication, inefficiency and so on (Attwood Attwood, 1992; Bowersox Closs, 1996; Waters, 2003; Chopra Meindl, 2004; Rushton, et al., 2006). Figure 4 graphically illustrates the relationships between number of facilities and costs incurred. Figure 3 Relationship between costs and numbers of facilities. The need to hold inventories Prior to planning and designing logistics and distribution system, it is very important to be aware of the reason why a company need to hold stock. The most common objective of a supply chain is to efficiently balancing demand and supply. As most people understand that it is impossible to precisely synchronise or balance the requirements of demand with the fluctuations of supply. Therefore stocks are there to provide buffer between supply and demand. Rushton, et al. (2006) reviews the important reasons to stock, as follows: a) to keep down production costs keeping production to run as long as possible, as the costs of setting up machine is often expensive; b) to accommodate variation in demand to avoid stock-outs by holding some level of safety stock; c) to take account of variable supply (lead) times to cover any delays of supplies from producers and suppliers; d) to reduce buying costs often there are administrative cost of placing an order, holding additional inventory can red uce these costs; e) to take advantage of quantity discounts often goods are offered at a cheaper cost per unit if they are ordered in large quantity; f) to account for seasonal fluctuations certain products are popular in a certain time of the year, retailer normally pile-up inventory during low demand season to cater the demand in high season; g) to allow for price fluctuations/speculation the price of certain products, steel for instance, fluctuate due to variety of reasons. Some companies buy in large quantity to cater this; h) to help the production and distribution operations run more smoothly stock is held to decouple two different activities; i) to provide customers with immediate service stocks enables companies to provide goods and service as soon as they are required to maximise the sales opportunity. This is essential in highly competitive markets; j) to minimise production delays caused by lack of spare parts Breakdowns of machineries required to produce goods or s ervices can be very costly to business. Having spare parts to fix the machineries as soon as it breakdowns is an advantage; k) to facilitate the production process by providing semi-finished stocks between different processes (Work-in-Progress). 2.9 Roles of warehouse Why businesses need warehouse? There are many reasons why business needs warehouses. Warehouse has many roles apart from providing storage and supplying the materials or finished goods to producers or retailers as reviewed in the previous section. In fact warehouse has many other roles and functionalities which can be classified on the basis of economics and service accordingly to Bowersox and Closs (1996). On the basis of economics, a warehouse is economically justified when the total logistical costs are reduced by providing the facility. On the basis of service, a warehouse is justified when the overall logistical system can provide a better service, in terms of time and place capability. Here are some common roles of a warehouse (Bowersox Closs, 1996; Higginson Bookbinder, 2005; Rushton, et al., 2006): Role as a make-bulk/break-bulk consolidation centre making bulk and breaking bulk are traditional functions of a warehouse/DC. In a break-bulk facility, large incoming loads are aggregated, often for product mixing and to create consolidated out- bound shipments. A make-bulk facility, or consolidation centre, com- bines small quantities of several products in fewer, larger assortments. Role as a cross-docking station Cross-docking is a process where the product is received, occasionally combined with different products going out to the same destination, and then shipped at their earliest opportunity without being stored. Cross-docking has many benefits, including: faster product flow, no inventory pile-up, reduced product handling, and reduce cost due to elimination of those activities. Role as a transhipment facility transhipment refers to a process of taking a shipment out of one vehicle and loading it onto another. It only occurs when there is a good reason to change transportation modes or vehicle types. Role as an assembly facility Hewlett Packards distribution centre is a good example of the role as an assemble facility. It also benefits from the idea of postponement which allows product differentiation until later stages. Products are designed to use generic parts and assemble at the warehouse. Role as a product-fulfilment centre the major function is to find the products that are ordered and directly deliver them to the final customer. Amazon.com warehouse is a good example. Role as depot for returned goods the major functions are to inspect and separate the returned good into those that can be repaired, repackaged, resale, or recycled. 2.10 Transportation Accordingly to Chopra and Meindl (2004), the target level of service the company sets determines the role of transportation in a company competitive strategy. If the company is targeting customers whose main criterion is price, then the company can use transportation to lower the cost of the product at the expense of reponsiveness. But more often companies tries to achieve the right balance between efficiency and responsiveness using both inventory and transportation. Often in logistics plannings, decision to make to make any changes based on the costs of transportation. Accordingly to Rushton, et al. (2006), the transportation costs can be broken into three main types. The first one is the fixed costs these costs must be borne whether the vehicles run for 10 or 100 kilometres and might include the depreciations of the vehicles, the licence fees, the insurance, etc. And these may vary from one vehicle to another depending on various reasons. The second type is the variable costs these costs vary in relation to the activity of the vehicles, i.e. how far the vehicle travelled. The most obvious example of a variable of cost is the fuel cost. And the last type is the overhead costs these costs are indirect costs that are borne by the whole fleet of vehicles. They may be the usual business overheads that are required to run the vehicles, i.e. staff salaries, telephone, internet, and other administrative expenses. 2.11 Location decision objectives Warehouse site selection is a complex process involving multiple, both qualitative and quantitative, criteria. And often location decisions have more than one objective depending on the organisations objectives and strategies. Current, et al., (1990) classified the objectives for facility location problems into four general categories namely: (1) Cost minimisation; (2) Demand Oriented; (3) Profit maximisation; (4) Environment concern, and often these objectives are found to overlap each other. For retailing business, cost minimisation and profit maximisation are often the main objectives. 2.12 The influences of warehouse site location selection It is important to effectively identify potential locations for the new warehouses. Typically, these locations must satisfy a variety of conditions and the potential locations should meet all the requirements. The potential locations should take into account the future demand and that the decision should have an impact on the firm for at least the next three to five years (Simchi-Levi, et al., 2003). Many authors (Chase, et al., 2004; Barnes, 2008) suggested that the choice of facilities location is influenced by two principles. The first one is the need to locate close to customer due to time-based competition, trade agreement, and transportation cost. And the second one is the need to locate close to the access to resources such as labour, raw material, and specialist skills and capabilities. Often the two principles are taken into account when an organization makes a decision on the choice of location. The characteristics of operations of business (i.e. Manufacturer or service provider) will govern the weight of factors should be taken into account. Barnes (2008) looked at the location decision on the international perspective where the influential facility location factors are more in numbers and level of complexity. However, these factors can be adapted and used for domestic facility location. Here is the list of major factors which in themselves comprises of several sub-factors given by Barnes (2008): Costs; Labour characteristics; Infrastructure; Proximity to suppliers; Proximity to market/customers; Proximity to parent company facilities; Proximity to competition; Quality of life; Legal and regulatory framework; Economic factors; Government and political factors; Social and cultural factors; and Characteristic of a specific location. Bowersox and Closs (1996) concentrated on the warehouse location analysis in the context of logistical network strategy. He discusses about three warehouse location patterns namely Market-Positioned Warehouse, Manufacturing-Positional Warehouse, and Intermediately Positioned Warehouse. They imply the similar idea of the two principles suggested by Chase, et al. (2004) and Barnes (2008). They also discussed the warehouse location from the viewpoint of transportation economies and from the viewpoint of inventory economies. Furthermore they incorporate the concept of Least-Total-Cost system where the sum of total inventory cost and transportation cost is minimal to design the warehouse network. The conditions or attributes of potential warehouse locations reviewed from many literatures are summarised as follows: Site-related factors Regional factors Land cost/size/soil characteristics/ drainage Proximity to market Construction costs/leasing cost/renting costs Proximity to suppliers Transportation facilities/cost Proximity to competitors Zoning restrictions Proximity to industry Community factors Geographical characteristics Quality of life/cost of living weather characteristics Public facility accessibility Labour cost/availability/skill Taxes Energy availability/cost Environment regulation Telecommunication facility Local government support/incentives Political matters and regulation Sustainability Transportation infrastructure 2.13 Methods and techniques in facility location problems In this section, we will review the methods, techniques, and approaches found in a number of literatures. Bowersox and Closs (1996) claim that a sophisticated modelling and analysis techniques are required in location decision because the location analysis is very complex and data-intense. The complexity is created because of the number of locations multiplied by the alternative location sites multiplied by the stocking strategies for each location. Meanwhile, the data intensity is caused by the requirement of detailed demand and transportation information. Furthermore, the facility site selection process is complicated by the impact of environment legislation and related political issues (Bowersox Closs, 1996). Thai and Grewal (2005) suggest the conceptual framework of location selection for distribution centre that consists of three main stages. The first stage is a general geographical area for distribution centre is identified based on the Centre-of-Gravity principle. The second stage is the identification of location alternatives of distribution centre and associate gateway airports/seaports. At this stage a qualitative approach should be applied. The third and final stage concentrates on the specific site selection based on the quantitative approach, i.e. The distribution centre should be place where the integration of volumes transported and distance involved is minimum and also the total distribution cost is minimum. 2.13.1 Decision-aid Techniques and Models Several operations management books (Stevenson, 2007; Barnes, 2008; Greasley, 2009) have their sections on facility location selection techniques and some common influencing factors as reviewed in the previous section. Accordingly to works of Simchi-Levi, et al. (2003), Rushton, et al. (2006), and Bowersox and Closs (1996), there are three categories for tools used to support location analysis. The first type is the analytic techniques. The second type techniques are the mathematical optimisation techniques which can be subdivided into two types: the exact algorithms that find least-cost solution; and the heuristics algorithms that find good solution. And the third type of techniques is simulation models that provide a mechanism to evaluate specific design alternatives created by designer. The simulation models will not, however, be included in the discussion. Accordingly to Randhawa and West (1995), the facility location problem can be approached by considering the location search space as continuous or discrete. Continuous space allows facilities to be located anywhere in the two-dimensional space; it normally assumes that the transportation costs are proportional to some distance measure between the facilities. Though easy to solve, the continuous approach may yield impractical results. The discrete space approach limits the number of possible locations to a finite set of predetermined sites, and the transportation costs are not necessarily function of distances. Four common types of techniques found on these books namely: (1) the Centre of Gravity Method i.e. finding a location that minimises the distribution costs; (2) the Locational Cost-Volume analysis i.e. comparing the total costs between location alternatives by graph plotting; (3) the Factor Scoring i.e. finding the location alternative with highest composite score; and (4) the Transportation model i.e. a linear programming model that shows location alternative with the most optimal solution (the lowest costs). 2.13.2 The Centre of Gravity Method The Centre of Gravity Method (CoG) is a method for locating a distribution centre that minimises the distribution costs. The main assumption of this method is the distribution cost is a linear function of the distance and the quantity transported, and that the quantity transported is fixed for the duration of the journey (Stevenson, 2007 Greasley, 2009). The locations of destinations are presented on the map with coordinate X and Y in an accurate scale. The location of the distribution point should be located at the centre of gravity of the coordination calculated by these following equations: Where = Quantity to be transported to destination i = x coordination of destination i = y coordination of destination i = x coordinate of centre of gravity = y coordinate of centre of gravity This technique is commonly used to solve location problems at a macro level. The method is applied to solve location problems in many fields other than location of a distribution centre such as school, fire centres, community centres, and such, taking into consideration location of hospitals, population density, highways, airports, and businesses (Stevenson, 2007). Bender (1994) argues that the CoG approach had became obsolete because of the replacement of other computerised approach including linear programming. He also discusses the limitation of the approach which ignores all constraints, such as capacity, financial, operational, legal, and all cost other than transportation. It is also assume that all the transportation costs are directly proportional to distance, and independent of the direction of traffic. 2.13.3 Locational Cost-Volume Analysis This method is an economic comparison of location alternatives which involves determining the fixed and variable costs for each location alternative. The method indicates which location is suitable for a particular volume level by analysing the mix of fixed and variable costs. The fixed cost plus variable costs line is plotted for each location alternative on the graph and the location with the lowest total cost line at the expected volume level is chosen. A total revenue line can also be plotted on the same graph to compare which location alternative has the earliest breakeven point if the objective is to consider the quickest breakeven location (Stevenson, 2007). The equation for expressing the cost is: Where TC = Total distribution cost VC = Variable cost per unit X = Number of units produced FC = Fixed costs This type of economic analysis is very common tool to compare which options have the highest rate of return and is not only limited to location problems. However, Stevenson (2007) suggests that, in most situations, it is very important that other factors other than costs must also be considered. The Locational cost-volume analysis alone is not sufficient to make decision. 2.13.4 Factor Rating Method The Factor Scoring method is sometimes known as weighted scoring or point rating, which attempts to take a range of considerations into account when choosing a location. Then technique starts by indentifying the relevant factors, then assign a weight to each factor that indicate the importance compared with other factors, given that all the weight sum up to one. Scores then have to be given by decision makers to each factor for all location alternatives. The total weighted scores for each location alternative are then calculated by multiplying the factor weight by the score for each factor, and sum the results for each location alternative. The alternative with highest score is chosen unless it fails to meet the minimum threshold, if there is one (Stevenson, 2007). The drawback of this method is identifying and determining the appropriate factors and weighting for each factor. Factors like quality of living and labour attitude are intangible factors and hard to quantify. Greasley (2009) suggested an approach to compare the tangible and intangible factors by conducting an intangible factors only assessment by the method, and then determine if the difference between the intangible scores is worth the cost of the difference in tangible costs between the location alternatives. Data collection, statistical estimates, optimization and simulation models, and economic analysis are some of the methods used to assess quantitative attributes. Qualitative attributes represent subjective factors for which it is generally difficult to define a natural measurement scale. Descriptive classes or interval scales (for example, 0 to 10) can be established to enable a numerical value to be assigned to represent how a site scores with respect to a particular attribute (Randhawa West, 1995). Linear Programming and location problems Linear Programming is one of the most widely used strategic and tactical logistics planning tools. The transportation model helps decision maker to decide the facility location based on the transportation costs. The model is very useful as it can compare the resulting total costs for each location alternative. Other costs like production costs can also be included in the model by determining the cost on a per-unit basis for each location. There are three major pieces of information needed to use the model as following (Stevenson, 2007; Balakrishman, et al., 2007): a) list of origins and each ones supply quantity per period; b) list of the destinations and each ones demand per period; and c) the unit cost of transporting items from each origin to each destination. The method can be used to solve for optimal or near-optimal locations. Even though the optimisation models are designed to provide an optimal solution, they can be used to analyze a problem under different scenarios (differe nt combinations of constraints and cost parameters). The result would be a set of location alternatives that are the preferred choices under different operating conditions. Furthermore, examination of a solution will generally result in the identification of more than one specific site. Such sites may then be further analyzed and compared using a multi-criteria model (Randhawa West, 1995). There are many types of mathematical programming models and they can be classified accordingly a variety of conditions. Aikens (1985) classified distribution location models accordingly to: a) whether the underlying distribution network (arcs and/or modes) is capacitated or incapacitated; b) the number of warehouse echelons, or levels (zero, single, or multiple); c) the number of commodities (single or multiple); d) the underlying cost structure for arcs and/or nodes (linear or nonlinear); e) whether planning horizon is static or dynamic; f) the patterns of demand (e.g. deterministic or stochastic, influence of location, etc.); g) The ability to accommodate side constraints (e.g. single-sourcing, choice of only one from candidate subset, etc.). Aiken (1985) gives some examples of types of distribution location mathematical programming models: a) Simple incapacitated facility location model; b) Simple incapacitated multi-echelon facility location model; c) Multi-commodity incapacitated facility location model; d) Dynamic incapacitated facility location model; e) Capacitated facility location models; f) Generalised capacitated facility location model; g) Stochastic capacitated facility location model; and h) Multi-commodity capacitated single-echelon facility location model. Diabat, et al. (2009) also show that the techniques can be applied to solve location-inventory problems which finds the number of warehouses to establish , their locations, the customers that are assigned to each warehouse, and the size and time of orders for each warehouse so as to minimise the sum of inventory. Melo, et al. (2009) review many literatures related to facility location problem that show that linear prog

Not All Access is Created Equal Essay -- Definition Technology Essays

Not All Access is Created Equal Access n. 1) the ability, right or permission to approach, enter, speak with or use; admittance; 2) the state or quality of being approachable; 3) a ways or means of approach; ~ v. 9) to make contact with or gain access to; to be able to reach, approach, enter; 10) Computers. to locate (data) for transfer from one part of a computer system to another, generally between an external storage device and main storage Random House Dictionary of the English Language, 2nd Edition Unabridged Language is a continuum. New words enter any given language upon contact with other cultures. Language is not static. It expands and contracts to allow or disallow change. The above excerpted definitions are reflective of what â€Å"access† can mean when this second edition of the dictionary was published in 1987. The first edition published in 1966 did not include the definition designated in number ten dealing with the technology arising in our computer age. Even that 1987 definition of computer access is outdated. However, we can derive from the preceding explanations a comfortable basis for determining what â€Å"access† means to computing technology in schools, the workplace and at home. Access, to those of us who use computers, means that we have a tool making communication and work tasks easier. Access, by implication, means to many of us that anyone has the ability to acquire the same information or perform the same tasks based on the availability of c omputers within a school or workplace or home. Accepting this notion is of course absurd. Not only does the definition of a word change, but the environment in which it exists is also in flux. Access does not ever the mean the desired object is avai... ...l in the hands of the educators. We become adept at manipulating the materials and the technology we have on hand to create the most productive and stimulating and thought-provoking exercises possible. We can bemoan our lack of access or simply use the technology we have. But I contend that access still has its ups and downs. Sometimes because information links and word processing are so accessible we become desensitized to the personal and emotional act of communication. We have traded hands-on-experiences for virtual reality – handwritten letters for abbreviated emails – summer games of kick the can for solitaire on a green screen. The world has shrunk because of technological advances so that we know more about cultures around the globe while at the same time we have surrounded ourselves with machines that help us maintain personal distance and anonymity.

The Power Areas of Life :: Of Water and the Spirit African Culture Essays

The Power Areas of Life The significant elements in Of Water and the Spirit were the elements that contrasted starkly with the modern world. There were many aspects of the Dagara culture that were alien to my culture. The use of and belief in magic and the supernatural ama zed me. I found an absence of secularism in the African society. The Dagara's inability to distinguish between thought and reality stunned me. The element that I chose to talk about is the strong bond displayed between the very old and the very young. This element plays a significant role in Malidoma's story, and it really made me consider the values in my society. Malidoma established the importance between the young and old early on in his narrative. He identified these two ages as the two power areas of life. In African culture the young children spend the majority of their time with their grandparents. Th ey are responsible for the rearing of the child. This relationship is established so that the child can learn from his or her wise grandparents. The bond is also important because if it is strong enough, it can be a bridge between the world of the livin g and the dead after the grandparent has passed away. Malidoma's grandfather was a very real part of Malidoma's life even after his grandfather's death. When Malidoma was in the seminary, the only tie that he had to his people and culture was his grandf ather. His grandfather, even though he had died when Malidoma was very young, was the steady and supportive force throughout Malidoma's life. When Malidoma was young he spent huge amounts of time with his grandfather. The thing that Malidoma really emphasized about their relationship, was that his grandfather always talked to him as if he were an adult. No one else treated Malidoma as if he were an adult; their bond was special. Malidoma was referred to as a brother by his grandfather. This bond of brotherhood between the elderly and child is stronger than death. In a way, it is strengthened by death. The French colonial rule was able to completely disconnect Malidoma from his family and culture. They alienated him so much, that after fifteen years away from his village, he couldn't reconnect with his people without undergoing the extensive initiation ceremony. The bond with his gra ndfather was unscathed by life with the Jesuit priests.

Analyzing Cafe at Night Painted by Vincent Van Gogh Essay -- Cafe at N

Analyzing Cafe at Night Painted by Vincent Van Gogh I have chosen to write my paper on painting titled â€Å"Cafà © at Night† by Vincent Van Gogh. Since this picture is a very popular one, I might have seen it a couple times before I actually decided to write about it. I feel warmth, streaming out of it, when I take a look at the â€Å"Cafà © at Night†. This comfortable feeling made me select this artwork. This picture shows a cobbled street, probably somewhere in the south of Europe, at night. In the very front there is just the street, and in the left corner there is the edge of a building that is painted in dark blue. It looks like there is no light coming out of this building, and it does not seem to be very important for the view, Van Gogh caught for this image. Next to the dark building another one is shown. This building is wider and thus reaches more in the back and middle of the whole painting. Different yellow shades light the building up which shows that it is busy, people are most likely in there. Three windows, painted in a darker yellow, or orange, make the viewer feel like ...

The Challenges of Fair Trade

Historically, coffee cultivation had brought a positive influence in developing countries to alleviate rural poverty. Paige (1997) and Williams (1994) also claimed that coffee cultivation had enabled households to develop their land holdings in sustainable, high return activity, and gainfully employ their family labor (as cited in Barham, Gitter, Lewis & Weber, 2011, p. 116). However, the global coffee market has fallen into crisis in recent years. A research conducted by Murray, Raynold and Taylor (2003), with a large decline in the coffee employment, many rural households have been forced to abandon traditional farming and adopt new livelihoods. Meanwhile, small scale but growing number of coffee farmers have participated in Fair Trade to try to survive such crisis. But, according to the research published recently, Fair Trade coffee may not only fail to bring the rural poor better life, it may impoverish them. This claim is supported by unbalanced price premium, limited Fair Trade coffee market and lack of Fair Trade knowledge by households. The higher sale price in Fair Trade coffee comparing to the conventional coffee is claimed to be the most direct benefit to individual rural farmers who participate in Fair Trade. As indicated by Barham et al. (2010), Fair Trade coffee growers receive an average US $344 in net cash income per hectare compared with US $192 for conventional growers (p. 120). Yet such premium price provided by the Fair Trade does not cover the cost to produce certified coffee for rural farmers. Weber (2011) states that if the coffee growers want to sell their products through Fair Trade, first they have to be certified (p. 109). Fair Trade Foundation requires coffee growers to pay high certification fees which the majority of Third World farmers are too poor to afford. In such cases, these growers are likely try to receive Fair Trade certification through cooperatives, but are required to share their net profit with cooperatives. For example, from the article What Price for Good Coffee? by Fieser and Padgett (2009) , Antonio, a coffee producer in Guatemala, receives 1. 55 dollars per pound of organic coffee sold through Fair Trade, approximately 10 percent more than the conventional market price. However, Antonio only receives less than 50 cents per pound after he pays Fair Trade cooperative fees, government taxes, farming expenses, and other costs (Fieser and Padgett, 2009, p. 98). This shows Fair Trade farmers often lose out on the premium price that can be fetched by certified coffee. Fair Trade is filled with contradictions. Even if the cooperatives and organizations are willing to lower the certification fees, the net cash income for growers participating in Fair Trade market is still not enough to cover the cost to produce certified coffee, by the fact that not all the high cost Fair Trade-organic certified coffee are sold at Fair Trade-organic certified coffee price. While Fair Trade coffee being organic is not a requisite for selling in Fair Trade market, most farmers that participate in cooperatives are expected to transit into organic coffee products and pass the organic certification (Weber, 2011, p. 110). However becoming organic certified requires a transition period. Weber (2011) claims it takes 3 years for growers to complete the transition into organic certification where they have to follow organic norms but unable to sell their coffee as organic (p. 111). This implies a significant delay between the time of the cost and when coffee starts yield a return. Such scenario above affects the net cash income received from Fair Trade households. Though some Fair Trade households do not transit themselves into organic certified coffee, the fact that most coffee grown by Fair Trade membership households is sold in the conventional markets is still true due to the lack of Fair Trade markets. Even though coffee is the second highest traded commodity, the market of Fair Trade coffee is relatively small with average 2. 5 % of the global coffee trade (Fieser and Padgett, 2009, p. 99). Barham et al. 2010) state that Fair Trade has limited the supply of coffee that labeled with certificated to keep the Fair Trade-organic coffee price up in the market. Therefore, even though the growers produce their coffee in a high cost Fair Trade-organic certification standards, they may have to sell their certified coffee to the markets that do not give the value of certification once Fair Trade refused their products (p. 122). Going through the effort to produce Fair Trade standards coffee, the farmers are not reaping the rewards they should have obtained. Also, with the lack of a consumer market but continually growing coffee producing households populations, Weber (2010) claims that it leads the cooperatives to increase their membership without expanding the market which results in lower premium for each household member (p. 113). The benefit to Fair Trade sales including price premiums, social premiums, long-term contracts, and low-interest credit are significantly reduced as less coffee is sold in Fair Trade markets (Murrary, 2003, p. 16). As a result, the limited and slow growth in the Fair Trade market has become one of the major concerns confronting Fair Trade production. Unconstrained market is the key to maximum returns; knowledge is the key ingredient to develop a more democratic institution. Yet households of coffee growers are facing the lack of clear knowledge for Fair Trade. Fair Trade is an indistinct concept to coffee growers comparing to coffee growing which appears in their daily farming livelihoods. Murrary et al. (2003) claim that coffee growers have not received regular and detailed training about information on Fair Trade, and have no contact with Fair Trade representatives but the cooperatives and the technical advisers (p. 6). Even more, majority of coffee growers identify Fair Trade with the cooperative. Such misinterpretation, leads some cooperatives to not tout the benefits coffee growers should gain as Fair Trade certification benefits (pp. 16 – 17). Since cooperatives and the technical advisers deal directly with the Fair Trade certification, buyers, and others; coffee growers simply have no control over their products com pare to other coffee investment patterns. For example, the Thrive's system mentioned by LaPorte (2013) in his article. Mr. Lander, an entrepreneur based in Atlanta, created the company named Thrive Farmers Coffee assisted coffee growers to increase their ownership and profit margins by splitting half of proceeds with farmers and by establishing relationships between farmers and local coffee co-ops. Mr. Lander also states that organizations like Thrive are trying to teach these growers the basic knowledge of risk and quality because now they see their products selling to their ultimate consumers (p. 106). If coffee growers can understand the way to prevent risk and way to improve coffee quality, these growers will most likely sell more coffee overall. In conclusion, Fair Trade is not the answer to solve poverty. The system offers limited price improvement to very few primary households, while neglecting the poorest of poor in the sector. With farmers lack of understanding of the structure and operation, Fair Trade can easily prevent the poor from liberating themselves, keep them in their land and restrain their future. And lastly, by raising Fair Trade coffee price for the consumer, it slows down the growth of global Fair Trade economy and limits the market from certain group. Overall, there are benefits to the small-scale farmers from Fair Trade movement, but the benefits are much insufficient compared with other investment patterns. It is nothing but a short-term diversion. If the Fair Trade is unable to put forward a plan for improving their current rate of returns, coffee growers are unlikely to lift themselves out of their poverty through Fair Trade. And, perhaps the only fair choice is to support free trade. References Abad-Vergara, Diane. (Director, Produce). (2009). Living with coffee [Documentary]. New Zealand. Barham, B. L., Callenes, M., Gitter, S., Lewis, J., ; Weber, J. (2011). Fair trade/organic coffee, rural livelihoods, and the â€Å"Agrarian Question†: Southern Mexican coffee families in transition. World Development, 39(1), 134-145. Fieser, E., ; Padgett, T. (2009). What price good coffee? Time International, 171(13) 90-91. La porte, N. (2013, March 16). Coffee’s economics, rewritten by farmers. New York Times. Retrieved 5/20/13 from  http://www.nytimes.com/2013/03/17/business/coffees-economics-rewritten-by-farmers.html Murray, D. L., Raynolds, L. T., ; Taylor, P.L. (2003). One cup at a time: poverty alleviation and fair trade coffee in Latin America. Fair Trade Research Group, Colorado State University. Weber, J. G. (2011). How much more do growers receive for Fair Trade-organic coffee? Food Policy, 36(5), 678-685

American Politics

Liberty is a concept that is commonly used by the average American in his daily affairs. A lexical definition of liberty states that it refers to the freedom to believe or act without the restriction of an unnecessary force. As far as the individual is concerned, liberty is the capacity of a person to act according to his will. But do we really know the history of America’s liberty? Do we really understand the historical events that have shaped the liberty that we know of and enjoy in these contemporary times?In this paper, I will be examining the roots of American liberty from the founding era to the modern debates surrounding the concept of liberty. I will also be looking into the proponents of liberty and those who have shared a significant role in defining and upholding liberty as we know it today. The Founding Era Hundreds of years before today, America was an entirely different place. Long before the creation of the Constitution, different European countries have already established their own settlements across America. The Spaniards and the French were among the early colonizers until the time of the British.During the rule of the British Empire, severe shortage in human labor resulted to enslavement and indentured servitude of the natives. In the years that followed, conflicts broke-out between the Native Americans and the English settlers. It should be noted, however, that Virginia already had black indentured servants in 1619 after being settled by Englishmen in 1607 (â€Å"Virginia Records Timeline: 1553-1743,† http://memory. loc. gov/ammem/collections/jefferson_papers/mtjvatm3. html), thereby suggesting that the attainment of genuine liberty from the colonizers is yet to be realized.It is perhaps during the time when the English pilgrims came to Plymouth, Massachusetts in 1620 and established their colonies that the concept of liberty came about, not the least in the context of the pre-Constitution history of America. As Mark Sargent w rites in his article â€Å"The Conservative Covenant: The Rise of the Mayflower Compact in American Myth,† some of the passengers in the Mayflower ship â€Å"who were not travelling to the New World for religious reasons would insist upon complete freedom when they stepped ashore† since the New World is already â€Å"outside the territory covered in their patent from the [British] crown† (Sargent, p.236). After the Seven Years War between the British forces and the alliance of French and American Indian forces in 1763, the British Empire enforced a series of taxes on the Americans so as to cover a portion of the cost for defending the colony. Since the Americans considered themselves as subjects of the King, they understood that they had the same rights to that of the King’s subjects living in Great Britain.However, the Sugar Act, Currency Act—both passed in 1764—the Stamp Act of 1765, the Townshend Act of 1767, to name a few, compelled the Americans to take drastic measures to send the message to the British Empire that they were being treated as though they were less than the King’s subjects in Great Britain (Jensen, p. 186). Moreover, the taxes were enforced despite the lack of representation of the American colonists in the Westminster Parliament.One of the famous protests taken by the Americans is the Boston Tea Party in 1773 where numerous crates containing tea that belonged to the British East India Company were destroyed aboard ships in Boston Harbor. As a result, the British government passed a series of acts popularly known as the Intolerable Acts in 1774, further fanning the growing oppression felt by the American colonists. Eventually, the American Revolution ensued beginning in as early as 1775 when British forces confiscated arms and arrested revolutionaries in Concord, thereby sparking the first hostilities after the Intolerable Acts were passed (Jensen, p.434). From 1775 to 1783, the colonies tha t formed their own independent states fought as one as the Thirteen Colonies of North America. Lasting for roughly eight years, the American Revolutionary War ended in the ratification of the Treaty of Paris which formally recognized the Independence of America from the British Empire. Between these years, the colonies underwent several changes which constitute part of the developments toward the framing of the Constitution (Bobrick, p. 88).One of these changes is the shift towards the acceptance of notable republican ideals, such as liberty and inalienable rights as core values, among several members of the colonies. Moreover, the republican ideals of the time saw corruption as the greatest of all threats to liberty. In essence, the concept of liberty during the founding era revolves around the liberation of the American colonies from the British Empire and the growing oppression it gave to the colonists through taxation burdens and a series of repressive acts.For the American colo nists, liberty meant the severing of its ties from the British government and the creation of its own independent nation recognized by other countries. The writing and ratification of the Constitution On the fourth of July in 1776, the second Continental Congress signed and officially adopted the United States Declaration of Independence which established the separation of the thirteen American colonies—the colonies which were at war with Great Britain from 1775—from the British Empire.Although others say that the founding moment of America is not on July 4 but two days earlier (Groom, http://independent. co. uk/arts-entertainment/books/review/the-fourth-of-july-and-the-founding-of-america-by-peter-de-bolla-455878. html), it remains a fact that there came a point in time when America finally declared its independence. The evolution of American political theory—especially that which is concerned with liberty—can be better understood during the confrontatio n over the writing and the ratification of the Constitution.In fact, the Declaration asserts that people have unalienable rights which include life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness. The Articles of Confederation served as the constitution which governed the thirteen states as part of its alliance called the â€Å"United States of America†. After being ratified in 1781, the â€Å"United States of America† was brought as a political union under a confederate government in order to defend better the liberties of the people and of each state. Meaning, each state retained its independence and sovereignty despite being politically held together as part of the union.However, the Articles were not without opposition and criticisms from several notable political thinkers of the time. For example, James Madison saw several main flaws in the Articles of Confederation that were alarming, or threatened the very existence and purpose of the Articles first and foremost. For one, Madison was concerned about the dangers posed by the divided republics or â€Å"factions† given that their interest may stand in conflict to the interests of others. Madison argues in The Federalist, specifically in â€Å"Federalist No.10,† that in order to guard the citizens from the dangers posed by these individuals who have contradicting interests, a large republic should be created, a republic that will safeguard the citizens from the possible harms brought by other states. It is likewise important to note that the union is not a homogenous group of citizens with the same political inclinations. Madison also argues that for the government to become effective it needs to be a hybrid of a national and a federal constitution.The government should be balanced in the sense that it should be federal in some aspects and republican in others instead of giving more weight to each separate state over the larger republic. In his â€Å"Federalist No. 39,† Madison prop oses and describes a republic government guided by three fundamental principles: the derivation of the government’s legitimate power through the consent of the people, representatives elected as administrators in the government, and a limitation on the length of the terms of service rendered by the representatives (Kobylka and Carter, p.191). Madison also pointed out in â€Å"Federalist No. 51† that there should be checks and balances in the government, specifically among the judicial, legislative and the executive branches. The judiciary, therefore, is at par with the other two inasmuch as each of the other two are at par with one another. Giving one of the three more powers disables the other two to check if that branch is still functioning within its perimeters.As a result, the more powerful branch becomes a partisan branch which consequently creates dangers to the liberties of the people. Another important part of the evolution of American political theory is the c ontention raised by Patrick Henry. In a letter sent to Robert Pleasants in January 18, 1773, Patrick Henry sees the relationship between the new government and the institution of slavery as a contradiction precisely because while the new government is said to be founded on liberty, there the evil that is slavery persisted under the new government.During those times, slavery was not yet abolished and that the new government was unable to meet the challenge of living up to its roles and foundations by failing to address the institution of slavery and demolishing it altogether. Moreover, Henry understood the efforts of secession from the hands of England were a matter of freedom or slavery, which can also be looked upon as a question of either a freedom from or a continuation of tax slavery from the British.While Madison was part of the â€Å"Federalists† who were supporting the ratification of the Constitution, the â€Å"Anti-Federalists† apparently argued against its ra tification. It was Patrick Henry who led the group in criticizing the contents of the proposed Constitution. For instance, Henry argued that the phrase â€Å"We the People† in the Preamble of the Constitution was misleading primarily because it was not necessarily the people who agreed and created the proposed Constitution but the representatives of each participating state.Thus, Henry argues that the Preamble should instead read as â€Å"We the States† which in turn delegated power to the union. Another argument of the Anti-Federalists is the claim that the central government and, therefore, the central power might result to a revival of the monarchic type of rule reminiscent of the British Empire which the Patriots fought. The fear is that, by delegating a considerable amount of power to the central government, the liberties of the individual states and the people are weakened as a result.Nevertheless, the Constitution was adopted on September 17, 1787 and later rati fied in each of the state conventions held. The anti-federalists share a significant role in strengthening some of the points of the Constitution through the succeeding amendments. The first ten amendments to the Constitution are popularly known as the Bill of Rights; it is largely influenced by the arguments of the anti-federalists. For the most part, the Bill of Rights aimed to guarantee that Congress shall not create laws which stand against the rights and liberties of the citizens of the nation.In effect, the Bill of Rights limits the power of the federal government in order to secure the liberties of the people in the United States. In â€Å"Federalist No. 84,† Alexander Hamilton argues against the Bill of Rights for the reason that the American citizens will not have to necessarily surrender their rights as a result of the ratification of the Constitution and, thus, the protection of the rights through the Bill is unnecessary. Moreover, Hamilton also argues that creatin g a Bill of Rights would effectively limit the rights of the people since those that are not listed in the Bill will not be considered as rights.In response to the argument, the Ninth Amendment to the Constitution was introduced and ratified later on. The amendment specifically states that the rights of the people are not to be limited to those which are listed in the Constitution. As it can be observed, the time before and during the ratification of the Constitution and the succeeding amendments made reflect how the people at the time sought to protect the liberties that they have realized and gained after the American Revolution and the defeat of the British Empire.Moreover, the debates at that time revolved around the issue of what to do with the liberties gained and how to secure them for the coming generations. One side—the Anti-Federalists—argues that the central government weakens the independence and sovereignty of the states as well as the rights and liberties of the people. The other side—the Federalists—argues that the Constitution will help preserve and strengthen the Union. Modern debates In the years that followed, debates over the interpretation of the Constitution, the role of the government and the place of the individual in American society have escalated.In his essay â€Å"Resistance to Civil Government† (popularly known as â€Å"Civil Disobedience†) first published in 1849, Henry David Thoreau asserts that the people should not simply remain passive and allow the government to be an agent of injustice. Much of Thoreau’s political beliefs eventually follow that same philosophy. In his work Walden published in 1854, Thoreau attempts to live a life of solitude in a cabin, away from the reaches of the society. In one of his days in Walden, Thoreau was arrested for the charge of not paying his taxes. His defense was that he refuses to pay federal taxes to a government that tolerates slavery.In ess ence, the fact that Thoreau decided to stay in solitude for approximately two years (although the contents of Walden was made to appear as though all the events happened within just a year) signifies his decision not to conform to the dictates of the society. On the contrary, Thoreau lived a life of liberty, free to do anything that he chooses without the institutions of society restraining him. The same sentiment—non-conformity or disobedience to the dictates of the society, especially the government—echoes through in Thoreau’s other work, which is â€Å"Civil Disobedience†.Thoreau asserts that â€Å"the only obligation which I have a right to assume is to do at any time what I think [is] right† (Thoreau, http://sniggle. net/Experiment/index. php? entry=rtcg#p04). That passage, along with the rest of â€Å"Civil Disobedience† and its theme in general, implies that people have an inherent liberty, which is the liberty to do any time what the y think is right. Taken altogether in the context of the concept of liberty, Thoreau seems to suggest that people ought to disobey a government that oppresses other people since each individual has inalienable rights that nobody can take away, not even the government.In the face of oppression such as slavery (which was still very much a part of America within twenty years after the ratification of the original Constitution since the issue of slavery was a very delicate and contentious matter during the Philadelphia Convention), Thoreau even suggested that Abolitionists should not only confine themselves with the mere thought of abolishing slavery but resisting the instructions of the government such as paying taxes.Thus, as a reading of Thoreau’s works would suggest, to have liberty is to act upon crucial issues instead of passively allowing contentious actions of the government to thrive and continue. I cannot help but think that Thoreau’s concept of liberty is someth ing that is absolute, which I also take to mean as confined only within one’s disposition instead of being limited by the government. Moreover, since Thoreau suggests that liberty is doing any time what one thinks is right an individual should first know if what he or she thinks is indeed right instead of being wrong.Charles Madison notes that Thoreau was heavily concerned with the â€Å"ever pressing problem of how one might earn a living and remain free† (Madison, p. 110). I cannot help but begin to think that Thoreau attempts at embodying and enacting his individualistic beliefs. As Leigh Kathryn Jenco argues, â€Å"The theory and practice of democracy fundamentally conflict with Thoreau’s conviction in moral autonomy and conscientious action† (Jenco, p.355); democracy is essentially the rule of the majority which consequently ignores the decisions of the minority. However, I think that much of Thoreau’s thoughts were heavily influenced by the c ircumstances during his time. His aversion towards the imposed taxation policy of the government stems from the fact that the government at that time still tolerates slavery which is directly against an individual’s liberty.Thoreau’s insight on the perceived conflict between the liberties being upheld by the Constitution and the actual state of the government during his time points us to the ideal that the people are sovereign because the people is the ultimate source of power of the government. If it is indeed the case that the Constitution upholds the rights of individuals including the right to liberty, it seems appropriate to consider as well why slavery at that time was not immediately abolished entirely especially at the time when the Constitution was ratified.In fact, it was only in 1865 under the Thirteenth Amendment—about 80 years after the original Constitution was adopted—when slavery was legally abolished and when Congress was given the power to finally enforce abolition. During the time when slavery was not yet abolished and immediately after the original Constitution was ratified, it can be said that not all citizens living in America were given full liberties. Several people were still laboring as slaves to their American masters.That is perhaps an often neglected piece of history that undermines the spirit of creating a Constitution and a government that will uphold the rights of the people. The pre-American Revolutionary war, the founding era, the ratification of the original Constitution, the creation of the Bill of Rights and the other succeeding amendments to the Constitution—all these stand as testimonies to the evolution of American political thought. The concept of liberty has played an important role in the development of the federal government and the Constitution.Although the history of American political thought might reveal that the attainment of liberty through the years has never been a smooth jo urney, contemporary America has reaped a large amount of benefits from the sacrifices and ideas of the Founding Fathers and all the people who lived and died during those times. Some might even argue that liberty is yet to be truly attained in today’s American society. But if liberty is yet to be attained in practice, how is it possible that people are given the right to air their grievances before the government?How is it possible that people have the liberty to do as they please so long as what they do does not conflict with what is legal? In any case, the present American Constitution guarantees the liberty of the people and that there are institutions which seek to promote and guard that important right. Had it been the case that the early Americans swallowed everything that the British Empire throw in their way and that the Founding Fathers abandoned the creation and amendment of the Constitution, the United States of America would not have been the land of the free and the home of the brave.Works Cited Bobrick, Benson. Fight for Freedom: The American Revolutionary War. 1st ed. New York, NY: Atheneum, 2004. Groom, Nick. â€Å"The Fourth of July and the Founding of America, by Peter De Bolla†. 2007. Independent. Co. Uk. October 16 2008. . Hamilton, Alexander, James Madison, and John Jay. The Federalist, on the New Constitution. 1787. October 18, 2008 . Jenco, Leigh Kathryn. â€Å"Thoreau’s Critique of Democracy. † The Review of Politics 65. 3 (2003): 355-81. Jensen, Merrill. The Founding of a Nation: A History of the American Revolution 1763-1776. Indianapolis, IN: Hackett Publishing Company, 2004. Kobylka, Joseph F. , and Bradley Kent Carter. â€Å"Madison, The Federalist, & the Constitutional Order: Human Nature & Institutional Structure. † Polity 20.2 (1987): 190-208. Madison, Charles. â€Å"Henry David Thoreau: Transcendental Individualist. † Ethics 54. 2 (1944): 110-23. Sargent, Mark L. â€Å"The Conservative Covenant: The Rise of the Mayflower Compact in American Myth. † The New England Quarterly 61. 2 (1988): 233-51. Thoreau, Henry David. â€Å"Resistance to Civil Government†. 1849. October 18 2008. . â€Å"Virginia Records Timeline: 1553-1743†. The Library of Congress. October 17 2008. . American politics One of the best characteristics of the US political system today is this particular feature: the presence of a socio-cultural and socio-political atmosphere that encourages and promotes the right of the individual to vote and the right to suffrage. This is considered as a positive aspect of the US political system. Not all of the countries and their respective political system make room for this rather delicate matter, to which the balance of power hangs and to which the fate of the country and its socio economic and socio political stability rests.The US political system should not change this particular aspect and on the contrary, manage to find ways on how to make this particularly enviable characteristic of the US political system develop more into something that lessens and lessens the chances and situations that limits or prohibits its citizens to vote and is not threatened by the possibilities of being corrupted by the politicians themselves.An important part of the praise-wor thy characteristic of the US political system to support the right for suffrage and encourage a population that is willing to go to voting precincts and vote and choose their own leader as part of the exercise of the democratic country they all live in is the fact that the right to vote is centered and is promoted not only among true blooded American citizens, but also to immigrants who are granted citizenship.This is important because this goes to show that the US' political system did not renege on its promise embedded on the towering facade of the Liberty Statue about bringing in and welcoming people from different cultures with open arms and giving them an equal treatment especially in the aspect which in other countries maybe a very delicate matter altogether – the right to vote.In the US, protection and promotion of the right to vote has been widely supported that politicians themselves are becoming â€Å"increasingly aware of the voting-bloc power of the immigrants (B ray 19)† that they â€Å"are offering meaningful choices and reforms to immigrant voters (Bray 19)† as well. One of the positive characteristics of the US political system is the consistent inclusion of the consideration for and fighting for the exercise and preservation of the human rights.Yes, it is true that the United States, as a country, has been the place where great battles on human rights were fought. The Klu Kux Klan reminds the world about the extent of racism in the United States. Isn’t it the same country that was divided and shed the blood of their countrymen because they do not see eye to eye with regards to the issue of liberating former African American slaves that the white people own? These are all important points that prove the problem of human rights in the US, especially during its earlier, younger years.But more important than these historical notes is the fact that it was through these experiences that heroes, like Abraham Lincoln and oth er fighters for human rights, were given the time to shine their brightest and influence not just the country, but the world about important socio-cultural values and the significance of human rights. Despite the times of troubles, the political system of the country has shown through the years that it is capable of learning and integrating inside the system the wisdom and knowledge lifted from previous experiences so that the system could be better in the end.Today, the protection of human rights in the United States is all the more highlighted and magnified, especially when news in Africa and from other countries tell the tales of individuals who died not being able to enjoy the most basic human rights, and leaving behind friends and family members who are still under the threat of having their human rights taken from them and violated in front of them.Their own political system is not powerful enough to protect them from this kind of atrocity that is still very much alive in many parts of the world even today. It is indeed very reassuring to know that the US political system features important aspects that can guarantee the exercise and protection of human rights, not just the rights of American citizens in the US but also the human rights of other people if the US political system can extend help for this cause as they did in the past like what they did in 1973 (Liang-Fenton 151).One of the problematic aspects of the US political system is the power of political appointments. It is considered as one of the â€Å"anxieties† haunting civil service as far back as the formative years of the National Commission on the Public Service (Bowles 239). This is something that is considered as problematic and is a characteristic that leans more on the negative side than on the positive side.This is because of the fact that political appointments are largely based on the whim of politicians who often use political appointments, either as leverage so that the poli tician can manipulate the exercise and flow of power and influence, or as a way/means for the politician to return the favor he or she owes to private individuals who, in one way or another extended help or assistance to the politician and in the process someone to whom the politician is owed to. In both cases, it is reflected how the power for political appointment is becoming more and more vulnerable to being utilized as a tool for used for the wrong reasons.An important change correcting this problematic situation is the limitation of political appointments to just a handful of aides that the politician will have to work with everyday. While it is true that the truly capable leader is capable of willing with different types of people and can function as a team player even if surrounded by team mates who the politician did not choose, there are significant benefits that comes out of letting the elected leader pick at least his core team. It follows that if the electorate trusts th e leader that they voted, they will trust the people whom the elected official trusts in return.In this line of thought, it now comes that political appointments should be limited to the immediate staff of the politician and no greater than that. Besides, the elected official was not elected to personally handpick every other civil servant. The current power for political appointments should be diminished and have the civil service system handle the filling of government positions so that the truly deserving individuals are placed in government positions without the bias from politicians who may exercise their powers incorrectly.It is quite unclear or uncertain yet in which particular part of the history the United States and its political system has actually began to become a hegemon, although John Agnew seemed to give the readers an idea akin to the amalgamation of several different factors leading to this reality of what is now known as the US hegemony on political, as well as ec onomic and even cultural spheres (Agnew 53).What is now clear today is that the United States has taken the role of the global hegemon, the US politics and the US system dictating and influencing heavily the course of action that many aspects of the present day globalized world has taken collectively. While it has its perks and positive features that the country and its people can and have enjoyed, this aspect of the US political system is something that causes problems and is more of a disadvantage than advantage.It is more of a negative characteristic than it is a positive characteristic because of what the hegemon role brings inside the country and towards it people – particularly, death by many US citizens which is often not morally or ethically justified. Take for example, the wars and armed conflict that the US has committed itself in fighting because of its self righteous role that comes out of being a hegemon.It wants to show the world that the country will be the lea der in fighting ideas like terrorism and how it physically manifests by bringing US soldiers to far off countries like Afghanistan and Iraq. These countries are turning out to be modern day version of Vietnam because of the continuous increase in casualties among US citizens who are fighting people from other culture and nation and carrying with them either very vague or very generalized ideas of the reason of war per se.The country should instead be content in the exercise of the limitation on trying to be the leader at everything with, at times, unreasonable sense of self-righteousness that it is doing more harm than good to the people of the country for which the US political system should serve in the first place, like making the US and its citizens prime targets of hate campaigns instigated by non Americans who detest the state of US hegemony.Works Cited Agnew, John A. Hegemony: The New Shape of Global Power. University of Chicago Press, 2005. Bowles, Nigel. The Government and Politics of the United States. Palgrave Macmillan, 1993. Bray, Ilona. Becoming a US Citizen: A Guide to Law, Exam and Interview. NOLO, 2008. Liang-Fenton, Debra. Implementing US Human Rights Policy: Agendas, Policies, and Practices. United States Institute of Peace Press (USIP), 2004. American Politics The United States Congress is composed of the Senate, the House of Representatives, and Committees. The Senate consists of 100 members, two from each state, regardless of population or area, elected by the people in accordance with the 17th Amendment to the Constitution (Johnson). The members include the Senate President, President pro tempore, Majority/Minority leaders, and whips. The House of Representatives consist of 435 members, which include the Speaker, Majority Leader, Minority Leader, and whips, elected every two years from among the 50 states, distributed to their total populations (Johnson).There are different kinds of Committees in the United States Congress: Standing Committees, ad hoc committees, conference committees, and House Rules committees. According to Johnson, the Article 1, Section 1 of the United States Constitution states that only the Congress has the power to make laws and to write all the laws that are required to make the Constitution into implementation. The Congress has also the constitutional power to regulate foreign and interstate commerce. It has the sole authority to raise, finance and regulate forces of the military units and to declare war.Moreover, Congress can alter the number of justices on the Supreme Court and can ascertain which cases the federal courts can hear by establishing limitations on their jurisdictions. It is Congress that played a role in the establishment of the departments, agencies, and bureaus that cover the majority of the executive branch. Most sources of legislation and proposed drafts of bills are conceived by a Member but may also come from various interest groups and private citizens and the President.These sources may come from the election campaign during which the Member had promised, if elected, to introduce legislation on a particular subject (Johnson). In addition, the executive communication has turned into a source of legislative proposals, usually in the form of a message or letter from a member of the President’s Cabinet, the head of an independent agency, or the President himself (Johnson). These legislative proposals are then forwarded to Congress with a request for their enactment (Johnson). In the Senate, a Senator usually introduces a bill or resolution (Johnson).If there is no objection, it is read by title and referred to the appropriate committee and is placed on the Calendar (Johnson). In the House of Representatives, the bill is assigned its legislative number and then referred to the appropriate committee. A committee will then ask the input of the relevant departments and agencies about a bill (Johnson). The committee may schedule a date for public hearings if the bill is of sufficient importance (Johnson). The subcommittee will consider the bill in a session, referred to as the markup session, after hearings are completed.Bills are read for amendment in committee by section and members may offer amendments (Johnson). Bills will be given consider ation by the entire Members of the House with adequate opportunity for debate and the proposing of amendments (Johnson). After passage or rejection of the bill by the House, the bill goes to the Senate for consideration. Votes on final passage may be taken by the electronic voting system. Every bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate shall be presented to the United States President before it becomes a Law (Johnson).If the President approves the bill, he/she signs it and usually writes the word approved and the date (Johnson). If the President does not approve the bill, he/she shall return it, with his/her objections to the House and proceed to reconsider it (Johnson). When a law has been enacted, it shall be made known to the people who are to be bound by it (Johnson). Reference Johnson, C. W. How Our Laws Are Made. Retrieved May 22, 2009, from http://www. senate. gov/reference/resources/pdf/howourlawsaremade. pdf.